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Different types of seismic waves travel at different velocities through any given Material. In addition, different Materials have different seismic properties, meaning that any one wave type can have a wide range of velocities, depending on the Material properties. For instance, the p-wave velocity of shale can range from 800-3,700 m/s. Granite can range from 4,800-6,700 m/s. Because of this, by themselves, seismic velocities alone are not particularly diagnostic with regard to rock type. Ultimately, seismic velocity depends on the density and elastic properties of the Material, whatever its composition. Specifically, Compressional-wave velocity depends on the “incompressibility” of the Material, as embodied in the bulk modulus. The higher the bulk modulus, the less compressible the Material, and the higher the p-wave velocity. Sound travels through water about four times faster than it does through air. Similarly, shear-wave velocity depends on the rigidity of the Material, or the resistance to shear. The higher the shear modulus, the higher the s-wave velocity. Mathematically, where K = bulk modulus µ = shear modulus ρ = density Note that Vp depends on both the bulk and shear modulus, while Vs depends only on the shear modulus. This observation implies two things: Shear waves always travel slower than compressional waves through a given Material. Materials with zero rigidity – i.e., fluids – do not carry shear waves at all. Therefore, the absence or presence of groundwater has no effect on the shear wave velocity. It is interesting to note that, in general, seismic velocity increases with density – denser rocks tend to be much harder and faster. Yet in the above equations, density is in the denominator. This is known as the “velocity-density paradox”, the answer to which can be found in the fact that the elastic moduli tend to increase with density as well, and at a faster rate.

Degaussing is a method by which magnetic domains in metals or magnetic inclusions in other Materials are randomized so that net magnetization is minimized. One tool do accomplish this is the “Bulk Tape Eraser” designed to erase data tapes. The method works because the “Bulk Tape Eraser” generates an alternating electromagnetic field, which flips the magnetization of the magnetic domains in the Material at 100 or 120 reversals per second (50 or 60 hertz). As the operator slowly removes the “Eraser” from the vicinity of the magnetized Material, the magnetic domains of the Material individually freeze in one orientation or the other, leaving the domains in a randomized orientation with minimal net magnetic effect. Degaussing with a Bulk Tape Eraser *The procedure is straight forward. Plug the Eraser into an extension cord or wall socket (the Eraser cord is usually short). Holding the object to be degaussed in one hand, depress the Eraser start button and move it towards the object. Once close to the object or section of Material, begin moving the Eraser with a small circular motion and then increase the radius of the circle as you draw the Eraser away from the object. DO NOT STOP the Eraser closer than three feet from the object being degaussed or it will become strongly magnetized in one direction! If this happens accidentally, just redo the degaussing procedure over again starting from the beginning. *For larger objects, run the Eraser along tubing or struts in a circular motion to “bathe” the objects in an oscillating field. Be sure to cover the entire surface area of the object being degaussed. Then slowly withdraw the eraser (while still running) until it is at least 3 feet away. Then release the power switch. *The magnetometer can be used to check the sufficiency of the degaussing procedure. After degaussing, rotate the object close to an operating magnetometer to see if there is a response from the magnetometer. This is best done with a cesium magnetometer operated in gradient mode, but it can be done with a single sensor with one person watching the result and another moving the object near the sensor. Degaussing Sensor Mount Degaussing Pack Frame Degaussing GPS Antenna Limitations of Degaussing with a Bulk Eraser Depth of penetration: The Bulk Tape Eraser can only randomize Materials to a certain depth. This is due to the size of the gap in the degaussing unit. A small gap makes for a very large degaussing field at the gap (about 2000 gauss, or 200 million nanoteslas), but also for a very rapid falloff away from the gap. Bulk tape erasers are optimized to penetrate through the thickness of a typical video tape. This gives a typical depth of an inch (2.5 cm). Deeper objects may need to be degaussed using stronger degaussing fields. Degaussing through a conductive chassis: An additional problem occurs when the object being degaussed is covered by a conductive surface (such as a sheet of aluminum). The degaussing field will generate huge eddy currents in the conductive surface which will generate its own opposing magnetic field. This will be evident to the operator because the opposing field will cause the degausser to buzz loudly. This doesn’t hurt anything, but be aware that the degaussing field on the other side of the conductive surface will be attenuated by some amount, so it may take a longer amount of time or multiple passes to degauss the object. The Bulk Tape Eraser is a short duty cycle device. It varies a little from manufacturer to manufacturer, but typically it is rated for 1 minute on and 5 to 10 minutes off. Most have an internal thermal cutout that will shut it off if it overheats, and if tripped may take 20 minutes or more to cool down enough to reset. Frequently Asked Questions Why is degaussing needed? Degaussing misaligns magnetic domains so that there is no net permanent magnetization that would give an offset or heading error to magnetic field readings. Sensitive magnetometers such as those manufactured by Geometrics can be effected by nearby Materials that are not sufficiently magnetically randomized. Degaussing does not alter the induced magnetic moment of any Material. A piece of steel, when degaussed, is still magnetic because it draws and concentrates the earth’s field through it. However, a degaussed piece of steel is much less magnetic than a permanently magnetized piece. How much effect does it have on magnetic signatures? Depending on the distance from the sensor to the magnetic object and the amount of magnetization, the effects can be very large -10’s of nanoTeslas. Many Materials including brass, aluminum, fiberglass and other non-ferrous Materials may have some ferrous Materials in them naturally or acquired during the manufacturing process. Other Materials such as ‘non-magnetic’ stainless steel are hugely magnetic when compared to the sensitivity of our magnetometers. Degaussing can decrease the magnetic effect of these Materials by a factor of 10 or more. What should I degauss? The operator should degauss any metallic object that is near the sensor. By “near”, in general we mean within 1 meter but certainly those metallic and non-metallic Materials within a few centimeters of the sensor must be considered (this also includes the sensor itself, which could have minute magnetic inclusions in the sensor Materials). This could also include GPS antennas, magnetometer cart assemblies (including brass fittings, bolts, clamps), buckles, eyeglasses, boots and parts of backpacks. We would also do occasional degaussing of the G-858 console and batteries. Will degaussing hurt anything? This is a tough question since it is impossible to imagine every conceivable system arrangement that could be subjected to degaussing. In all our experience we have never had any electronics device hurt by the degaussing process. This is because the induced voltages from the degausser are low, and the electronics components have a fairly high impedance at low voltages. It would be safer to degauss electronics while the power to the electronics is turned off in case the small induced voltages cause the device to operate incorrectly. It is always safe to degauss any of Geometrics’ manufactured equipment (including the sensor). On the other hand, here are some things to consider when degaussing some types of objects. Large conductive planes or rings will have large circulating currents induced in them by the degausser (but the voltages are still very small). This induced current will produce an opposing magnetic field that will fight the degaussing field – causing both the degausser and the conductive plane/loop to vibrate substantially. If the device being degaussed is sensitive to this vibration (intricate mechanical workings and the like) then this is a possible route for causing some damage. Also, sometimes objects being degaussed have embedded magnets that are necessary for the device to operate properly. A good example is a device with a permanent magnet speaker inside. Generally it is hard to degauss a magnetically hard permanent magnet, but the degausser is strong enough to at least partially do the job. A partially degaussed speaker (or other object that requires a magnet to work right) isn’t going to work the same as before – so be aware. [Things that have magnets in them shouldn’t be used near magnetometers anyway.] When to degauss and how often? We recommend that parts close to the sensor be degaussed before every major survey event. In other words on a weekly or monthly basis or before a new survey. Remnant magnetism or “Perm” can be “picked up” (domains realigned) when the Materials are static in the earth’s magnetic field for a period of time. The amount of time required to acquire a “Perm” can be from days to weeks or months depending on the magnetic “hardness” of the Materials. This is also known as the Materials “susceptibility”, that is, susceptibility to being magnetized. Also, magnets are everywhere, and they can easily and unknowingly ‘perm’ up parts on or near the sensor. Magnetic screwdrivers, for example, are great for holding steel screws on the end of the driver while starting them into a threaded hole, but they are bad news near any magnetometer sensors.

General information The most common symptoms of intermittent connection issues are shown below: D_CY shows a background decay signal is either much higher than normal, and/or C_CY is a flat line (doesn’t decay). Figure 1 Intermittent connection issue. Where is the failure occurring? The two most common places where intermittent issues occur are at the two ends of the Rx cable: the joint between the Rx cable and the Cart and the joint between the Rx cable and the EDA box (orange box). Now we need to identify which joint has the intermittent issue. Set up the MM2x2 in DAM mode. Collect DAM data while keeping the Cart stationary but tapping one joint. Collect another DAM data while tapping the other joint. Analyze the DAM data by plotting the “Monostatic_5” for all 12 Rx channels in Geosoft. The channels having intermittent issues will appear much noisier. If you have MatLab software, you can download the MatLab code to analyze the DAM data. Example plots are shown below. It is obvious that “ZA” channel has the intermittent issue in Figure 2 and “XB” channel is open in Figure 3 (very flat line, no noise at all). Click here to download the code: Attachment : Intermittent_noise_full.zip . If both DAM and IVS data have the same problematic channel(s), we are confident that the intermittent issues observed in IVS data are repeated in DAM data, and by tapping at that location, we are able to identify the intermittent joint. Figure 2 Intermittent "ZA" channel. Figure 3 Open "XB" channel. What to do next? Disconnect the problematic joint and clean the connectors on both sides thoroughly (using an acid brush and a can of compressed air). Reconnect and try the tapping method again. If the problem goes away (no more noisy channels), the intermittent issue is likely caused by dust. If cleaning doesn’t fix the problem, swap out the Rx cable and repeat the tapping method. If the problem goes away, it is likely caused by a bad Rx cable. If there is another set of EDA and Cart available, swap out the EDA and the Cart to identify the problematic part. If not, use the tapping location to identify the problematic part. Fill out the RMA form at . If it is the Cart, send in the whole system for inspection/repair. You can contact Geometrics for MM2x2 rental if you need to continue your work during the down time. If it is the EDA, we recommend sending in the EDA only. It will save your repair time since it is much faster to unpack/pack/ship the EDA than the whole system. You can contact Geometrics for EDA rental if you need to continue your work during the down time. Warning Please note that this tapping method should ONLY be tried when intermittent issues have been observed in IVS tests. It is NOT recommended to use it as a daily QC test because it does put extra stress on connectors and likely leads to a shortened connector lifetime if applied too often.

@kuldeep You are correct. If the Ethernet software is installed, wifi code doesn't work. You can still connect to wifi. But there is no data communication. This appears to be a hardware issue. The Dev Kit needs to be sent back for evaluation. Please fill out our RMA form online and our customer service will contact you. Sorry for the inconvenience!

Geometrics provides MagArrow tow/suspension cables with 10ft length. Customer can make their own tow/suspension cables in different lengths. See the attached zip file for instructions on how to make MagArrow tow/suspension cables. It contains a procedure, a Bill of Material, and some construction notes in a ReadMe.txt file. Attachment : MagArrow Tow Cables.zip

With the provided 10-feet suspension cables, the magnetic noise due to most commercial drones can be ignored. However, some MagArrow customers experience stability issue, especially in windy conditions. For a small number of drones, the MagArrow can be attached to the landing gear directly with acceptable noises (line-levelling is still required in data processing). For most drones, however, this configuration causes too much noise. A half rigid mounting design may solve this problem. It has 2 rigid bars with hinges on one side and 2 flexible cables on the other. On the ground, the rigid side folds to the side. While in the air, gravity will keep the MagArrow further away from the drone. Drone noise can be greatly suppressed since the noise follows 1/R^3. A factor of 2 increase in the separation can lead to a factor of 8 decrease in noise. Please make sure the hinges and the rigid bars are made of non-magnetic Material.

The Reflection Coefficient R between two velocity layers is expressed as: R = (ρ2V2 - ρ1V1) / (ρ2V2 + ρ1V1) Where ρ = density and V = velocity. The quantity ρV is the seismic impedance of the Material. The Reflection Coefficient is therefore the difference in seismic impedance over the sum of seismic impedance of two Materials. From the above equation, it is apparent that R will be a positive number when V2 > V1, and a negative number when V2 < V1. A positive R means that the polarity of the reflected wave will be the same as that of the incident wave. A negative R means that the polarity of the reflected wave will be the opposite of the incident wave. It should also be apparent that the larger the contrast in seismic impedance, the larger the amount of incident energy that is reflected (and the smaller the amount that is transmitted). The above assumes normal incidence. For incident angles other than 90o, the equation is more complex.

The crossover distance is the distance from the source at which the critically-refracted energy from the next deepest layer overtakes the critically-refracted energy from the previous layer (in the two-layer case, the energy traveling through layer 1 is direct, not refracted energy, but the idea is the same). This is illustrated by the following animation: The direct energy (red) is the first-arrival energy at the first six geophones. However, by the seventh geophone, the direct energy is overtaken by the critically-refracted energy (green). The reciprocal of the slope of each segment is equal to the apparent velocity of the Material. If there were a third, even faster layer, a third slope and second crossover distance would eventually appear on the travel time graph. The crossover distance, along with the velocities indicated by the slopes of the segments, are used to determine the refractor depth.

1. When the transmitter is turned on, the red power light (or green light in later versions) comes on and stays on. The blue light will go into a rapid flashing pattern then settles into a three-flash sequence, for example short-long-short or short-long-long, or something like that. Is that what the transmitter is doing? If not, there are three possible causes of the problem and this will require require swapping parts: Defective dipole cable or shorting plugs are two potential problems. The best test is to plug the shorting plugs directly into both ends of the Transmitter and turn on. If this works, then add one dipole cable and turn on again. Then add the second cable and power up. If failure occurs with just the shorting plugs then the most likely problem is a battery with a shorted internal cell. This will look like it is fully charged when you measure it with a volt meter, but will not be able to supply the current required to drive the transmitter. Swap out batteries to test. If swapping the batteries does not resolve the issue and you never get the blue light to start flashing you may have a bad Tx and it would need to be returned to Geometrics. 2. When the receiver is turned on the red power light will come on, then the blue light will flash rapidly, then the blue light will turn off waiting for the receiver to phase lock onto the Tx. Once it locks onto the transmitter the blue light will start flashing at once per measurement. Depending on how conductive the ground is and how far apart the Tx/Rx separation is you may have to wait up to a minute to get the lock. Try it with about a 5 meter separation between the end of the dipoles, i.e. the equivalent to having a 5-meter rope between them. The Rx should lock and start flashing within about 20 seconds. If it never locks on even though the Tx's blue light is flashing then there may be something wrong with the receiver and it would need to be sent back. Remember that the transmitter blue light has to be flashing first. If the Tx is not working the Rx will never detect it and start flashing. 3. With the Rx turned on, even if the blue light is not flashing, when you look at the OhmMapper Test screen on the console do you see the message: Setting Gain, Phase A, Phase B or something similar being updated on the screen every second (or twice per second with the old systems)? If so your console is communicating with the receiver. If not, you have no communication between the Rx and the console so you could have a bad dipole cable, bad optical wand, bad console cable, or a bad receiver. If you have spares of any of these items you can troubleshoot the problem. If you have no spares then you will need to send the system back here for evaluation by submitting an RMA request.

Our seismographs do not require periodic calibrations in that they do not have any adjustable parameters. With that being said, we do recommend that they are checked for performance and routine maintenance to include intensive analog tests of the acquisition circuitry. A reasonable interval would be around every 5 years for normal usage. During these tests we verify that the seismograph analog performance meets our specifications by using a seismic test system. This system incorporates a standard reference oscillator and precision resistor networks to inject known signals into the seismograph. We then use algorithms in our software to calculate the response and performance of the analog circuits. This "performance test" is run whenever we receive an instrument in for repair or evaluation. Some of our customers do prefer to have the performance of their instrument checked on a periodic basis especially if they are required by their clients, for example the NRC. We offer these nontraceable recertification’s to include a calibration certificate and test results for a fee of $300. If you would like us to perform performance verifications and a system evaluation please reserve an RMA and obtain shipping instructions.

Below is a series of diagrams that can act as analogies for impacts. If the impulse is enacted rigidly (hard tip hammer, steel plate, etc.), the impulse will look something like the far-left figure. High-amplitude (height of the curve), narrow wavelength (width of the curve). This is because the impacted Materials respond rigidly to the impulse, i.e. the hammer rebounds from the plate almost instantaneously. Therefore, as a result of the narrow-wavelength impulse, the transmitted waves will have relatively high-frequency (short wavelength) content. As you use softer and softer impact Materials, applying impulses of equal force will appear like the diagrams to the right (smaller amplitude, longer wavelength). The impacted Materials are responding less-rigidly to the impulse, so the hammer spends more time on the plate due to the more absorptive nature of the impact. The same amount of energy has been put in (area under the curve), but the amplitude of the input (height of the curve) decreases to compensate for the input duration (width of the curve) caused by the impact absorption of the softer Materials. Therefore, as a result of the wide-wavelength impulse, the transmitted waves will have relatively low-frequency (long wavelength) content. Using a more rigid striker plate (like one made of aluminum) on a hard surface can cause the generated wave frequency to be too high at times given the survey goals, so we suggest using a polyethylene plate on a relatively solid Material like asphalt. Remember: lower frequency -> deeper signal penetration -> decreased signal resolution.

There are basically three types of "gold": low concentration disseminated gold in ore, placer gold deposits and solid gold such as that associated with treasure. Magnetometers are used to find disseminated gold by its association with mineralized zones which also contain magnetite or other magnetic minerals. Magnetometers are often used in conjunction with airborne electromagnetic surveys to find the conductive ore bodies. Placer gold is the type found in buried stream channels such as the gold which sparked the California gold-rush in 1849. Gold dust and magnetic minerals have been concentrated in river banks over thousands of years. Where there is gold there is often magnetite and therefore the magnetometer can be used to locate placer gold deposits. Gold treasure is a different story and being non-magnetic gold, silver, and other precious minerals are not directly detectable by the magnetometer. The magnetometer can only detect ferrous (iron or steel) objects. If the gold is stored in an iron box or has iron Materials next to the gold (such as colonial ship ballast stones in the marine environment), there is the possibility of detecting the iron Material. This is true for land and marine (sunken galleon) gold bullion. The vast majority of target search surveys are performed on a grid in a "lawn mower" back and forth manner to cover the area of interest. Lane spacing is dependent on target size (magnetic mass). At a sensor to target distance of 2 to 3 meters there will need to be at least 1-2 kilograms of iron. This can produce a 1-2 nT anomaly that is detectable in a magnetically clean environment. The ideal environment would be in a plowed farm field or the bottom of the ocean away from human activity i.e., away from a port or harbor. You will probably not be able to detect this small of an anomaly in a city or port location. The more iron mass there is, the better the chance of detecting it. Training to use the magnetometer can take 1-2 days depending on experience with setting up computerized survey equipment and a GPS. Processing the magnetic data requires several days of training and would require a geophysical background to interpret the final maps. We provide free software to make maps and estimate the target depth of burial (inversion). If you are unfamiliar with this procedure, we would recommend that you find a local geotechnical firm to look at the data to determine if there are anomalies that should be investigated further. Remembering that non-ferrous Materials do not cause anomalies (gold, silver, copper, brass, aluminum, gems) you will be looking for anomalies either associated with the container OR associated with ground disturbance (i.e., gravesite). In this way some anomalies can be detected where there has been an excavation such as a gravesite. In order to understand the process more fully, we strongly suggest that you download and read the Applications Manual for Portable Magnetometers. Other additional resources are available. Understanding how the magnetometer functions and how the earth’s field responds to distortions due to ferrous Materials will help you make good decisions about how to interpret and use the data to direct recovery or exploration efforts.

The cesium used in our magnetometers is the non-radioactive elemental metal, isotope Cs 133. We employ approximately 120 to 240 micrograms of cesium metal in the sensor divided between the lamp and absorption cell. These are small glass ampules, each containing a volume of 1/32 to 1/16 of a cubic millimeter of cesium. If either or both the lamp and cell should break the cesium will instantaneously react with the air and moisture in the air to become Cs2O and/or CsOH. Both compounds are caustic but the quantity is so small that it is of no health concern. Finally, the lamp and the cell ampules are contained in a G10 housing that is then contained inside a sealed PVC housing. If the sensor should cease working due to a broken lamp and/or cell, it is not field repairable. Return the sensor to Geometrics for repair, replacement and/or disposal.