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Very often I am asked what the difference is between the Lite, Std and Pro versions of the 2D Refraction software licenses. SeisImager/2D Software Packages • Standard version: for use on seismograph with mouse or PC with mouse; allows up to 16K samples per trace, 128 traces per shot, 360 traces per interpretation, and 65 shots per interpretation.• Professional version: for use on seismograph with mouse or PC with mouse; allows virtually unlimited input up to 2M samples per trace, 48K traces per shot, 48K traces per interpretation, and 48K shots per interpretation.• Lite version: included with purchase of Geometrics Windows-based seismographs. For use on seismograph with mouse or PC with mouse; allows up to 16K samples per trace, 64 traces per shot, 51 traces per interpretation, and 12 shots per interpretation.• Demonstration version: for use on PC with mouse, may be launched 15 times; same allowances as Lite version; no printing capability.Note: The number of shots per spread and spreads per interpretation are dependent on the actual trace number used. The Standard and Professional versions are also available for rent. SeisImager Software Suite* Refraction & Surface Wave Data Analysis Software 40 hr - $200 75 hr - $300 250 hr- $500. See Rentals - Geometrics : Geometrics and email rentals@geometrics.com to Set up an Order.

Total field magnetometers like the optically pumped cesium magnetometer are passive devices, they do not send out waves or pulses. They measure distortions in the earth’s normally homogenous magnetic field and can sense distortions due to ferrous objects at great distances. The basic rule of thumb is that one ton (1000 Kg) of steel or iron will give us a 1nT anomaly at 100 ft. or 30m. Since the amount of distortion falls off as the cube with distance (compare a metal detector which falls off as the inverse 6th power!) and is linear with mass, every time we cut the distance in half, we can see 1/8th the mass. Therefore, we can sense 250 lbs. (100kg) at 50 feet (15m), or 30lbs (15kg) at 25 feet (8m), or 4lbs (2kg) at 12 feet (4m). However this is not the whole story. The factors given above are for induced magnetic fields only. Many targets also have remnant or permanent magnetic effects (meaning they have become magnetized either in production or by the earth’s field) and can therefore have larger anomalies by a factor of 3 or 5 or more. Also many hollow objects like barrels or other tubular structures appear as though they are Solid due to self-shielding from the earth’s field, and thus have much larger anomalies than their mass would predict alone. Pipes fall off as the inverse square and are thus detectable at even greater distances. Please see our Applications Manual for Portable Magnetometers for more information.

This is the velocity that is measured directly from the travel time plot, uncorrected for any refractor dip relative to the Surface. The apparent velocity is equal to the true velocity only when the refractor is parallel to the Surface. If the refractor is dipping, the apparent velocity measured in the updip direction will be higher than the true velocity, and that measured in the downdip direction will be lower. The true velocity, especially for small dips, is close to the average of the updip and downdip velocities, although not mathematically so.

The best source for seismic reflection is not always the most practical. Parameters such as cost, size, access, Surface materials, and depth of penetration must all be taken into account. As always, a sledgehammer always supplies the most bang for the buck when practical. If the ground Surface is too soft for a sledgehammer, you might consider a downhole seisgun. Small explosives are ideal in terms of portability and power, but for obvious reasons are often not feasible. Less portable sources like weight drops and vibrators should be considered when access allows and required depth of penetration exceeds that of a sledgehammer or seisgun. Although depth of penetration varies widely depending on the geology and cultural noise, you can expect to see somewhere in the range of 0.25 - 0.5 seconds with the latter two sources.

All wave phenomena, the most familiar being visible light, are subject to refraction, or a change in propagation direction, at interfaces between materials of contrasting propagation velocities. The bigger the difference in velocity, the more the energy is refracted or "bent". As the name implies, seismic refraction uses the travel times of refracted seismic energy to determine the seismic velocity of the earth. A short practical discussion of seismic refraction can be found here. The most important thing to keep in mind when learning how the seismic refraction method works is this: When doing seismic refraction, we are only interested in first-arrival energy at each geophone. The rest of the wave train -- reflected energy, Surface waves, etc. are discarded and ignored. Except in the exceedingly rare case where the near-surface is slower than the speed of sound in air, the first-arrival energy will always be either direct or critically-refracted energy. Common applications of seismic refraction include: Estimating rippability prior to excavation Mapping depth to bedrock/bedrock topography Mapping depth to ground water Measuring the thickness of the weathering zone Calculation of elastic moduli/assessment of rock quality Mapping thickness of landslides Identification and mapping of faults Seismic refraction uses body waves, most commonly, p-waves. Shear-wave refraction can also be done, but it has become largely supplanted by MASW.

Our cesium-vapor magnetometers do not require periodic calibration in Order to maintain the accuracy as described in our published specification when the instrument is operated within specified environmental ranges. Geometrics cesium-vapor magnetometers are manufactured and tested based on the discoveries and the basic designs of Carian Associates (U.S. Patent 3,071,721). This method of total magnetic field measurement relies upon the measurement of the optical absorption of a particular cesium spectral frequency by the cesium vapor enclosed in a small glass cell. This method is similar to those used in the measurement of atomic emission and absorption frequencies using spectroscopic reference cells. The technique thus relies on well-known fundamental quantum mechanical constants for accurate and precise measurement of the magnetic field. As a result, no adjustments to the sensor are needed in Order to correct or maintain its accuracy and Geometrics sensor and sensor driver electronics are designed to either work correctly or to not work at all and to report both the strength of the magnetic field as well as the strength of the electrical signal produced by the working sensor. In this way, the signal strength measurement provides a direct indication of the operational state of the magnetometer while it is running and serves to alert the operator if the magnetometer encounters environmental conditions that are outside of its operating range. Occasional maintenance of the instrument at Geometrics facility should be performed when the instrument's internal diagnostics indicate substandard performance as described in the operator's manual. Please contact Geometrics Support for technical advice and additional information pertaining to your specific model.

The MFAM Development Kit is usually Set to a fixed address of 192.168.2.2 (port 1000). The Ethernet port on the Windows PC must also be switched from DHCP to a fixed IP Address mode in Order to connect to the Dev Kit. The procedure for doing this is described in the Dev Kit User Guide. If there are more than one Dev Kits connecting through an Ethernet switch they cannot have the same address. Therefore it is possible to Set the Dev Kit IP address to something other than the default. 192.168.2.3 and 192.168.2.4 firmware are included in the USB drive shipped with Dev Kit and can be downloaded here: For other IPs, please contact Geometrics or reply to this post. You may need to install the Uniflash program from Texas Instruments.

Stacking is a complicated topic, and warrants its own technical note. Which stacking features are available and how they work depends which modes you are in. There are three main mode “groups”: SAVE, CORRELATION, AND STACK. Within those are sub modes whose names indicate their function. Save Autosave Manual Save Correlation No correlation Standard correlation Stack before Correlation Stack after Correlation Random Source Correlation Stack Autostack Replace There is a complicated interplay between the above modes and between these modes and the stack options: Stack polarity Display Intermediate Stacks Unstack Delay We will examine each possible combination in rough Order of popularity Modes: Manual save , No correlation, Autostack This is the most common configuration used in refraction and downhole surveys. Each shot is automatically stacked Each stacked record is displayed as the stack count increments The stack count continues to increment with each shot until you clear the data, even if you save the data sometime in the process. Stack Polarity can be changed at any time. This is most often used in shear wave surveys where reverse-polarity stacking is required. Unstack Delay gives you the option to unstack the most recent stack; for example, Setting the stack count from 4 back to 3. The data will be held in a temporary buffer for n seconds, during which time you can choose whether to stack or not. If you do nothing, the data will be automatically stacked after n seconds, and unstacking will be no longer be an option for that stack. If Unstack Delay is Set to zero, this feature is disabled. Modes: Auto Save, No correlation, Autostack This is the most common configuration used in impulsive reflection surveys. Each shot is automatically stacked until the Stack ulmit is reached. When the Stack ulmit is reached, the data are saved automatically. Data are automatically cleared and the stack count is reset to one the next time the seismograph triggers after saving the data. Stack Polarity is generally left Set to Positive. Displaying intermediate stacks is optional. Disabulng this option results in faster production, since the data do not need to be sent over the network with every stack. Modes: Auto Save, Standard Correlation, Stack Before Correlation This is the most common configuration used in swept-source reflection surveys. Each shot is automatically stacked until the Stack ulmit is reached. When the Stack ulmit is reached, the data are saved automatically. Data are automatically cleared and the stack count is reset to one the next time the seismograph triggers after saving the data. Data are stacked in raw, uncorrelated form in the Geodes, and are not sent to the PC until the Stack ulmit is reached. When the Stack ulmit is reached, the stacked raw record is correlated in the Geode (with the most recent pilot), sent to the PC, and saved. Modes: Auto Save, Standard Correlation, Stack After Correlation This is the most common configuration used in Random Source (mini-Sosie) reflection surveys. Each shot is automatically stacked until the Stack ulmit is reached. When the Stack ulmit is reached, the data are saved automatically. Data are automatically cleared and the stack count is reset to one the next time the seismograph triggers after saving the data. Each individual record is correlated with its own pilot and stacked in correlated form in the Geodes. Displaying intermediate, correlated stacks is optional. When the Stack ulmit is reached, the stacked, correlated record is sent to the PC and saved. Modes: Auto Save, Replace This is the most common configuration used in Continuous Recording surveys. Each stack is replaced by the previous. If Auto Save is not enabled, the previous stack is lost. If Auto Save is on the Stack ulmit is hard-coded to 1. Each shot is displayed.

1. Hook up Geode in normal configuration to computer Ethernet box. 2. Select Start New Survey. 3. Uncheck Line Tap. 4. Uncheck Aux. 5. Select YES to all pop up menus. 6. Locate lower left corner menu: Seismodule List Window. 7. Note what current loader version under LDVER column of table in Seismodule List Window. (Ex. 2.729) 8. In Order to change the LDVER, you must first Set up the table in column F from N/A to X by doing the following: 9. Select System pull down menu from the upper task bar. 10. Select Test. 11. Select Update System Board Bios. 12. Select I Agree. 13. Select Browse. 14. To Set up table to enable loader version update (LDVER) select the file: GEODEFOR3D-1.0.exe. 15. Select Open. 16. Select Start Burning. 17. Select Yes. 18. Cycle power or shut down controller by using the software. 19. Restart the Geode. 20. Repeat necessary steps to get to Seismodule List Window. 21. Verify value in column is now X. 22. Select System pull down menu from the upper task bar. 23. Select Test. 24. Select Update System Board Bios. 25. Select I Agree. 26. Select Browse. 27. Select from Flash Update File Flash3_703&2_42.exe. 28. Select Start Burning. 29. Select Yes. 30. Verify Power LED light on Geode now blinks 3 seconds on 1 second off. 31. Select OK. 32. Cycle power or shut down controller by using the software.

A seismograph with an active trigger input like the Geode Seismograph or ES-3000 Seismograph can be triggered many different ways. The most commonly used methods are with a trigger switch or a trigger geophone. Typically a trigger switch (known as a hammer switch) is attached to the handle of a sledgehammer near the striking end, so when the sledgehammer is hit against a striker plate to create an active source of energy, the piezoelectric crystal in the hammer switch is activated and the seismograph is triggered to record data along the preset parameters. A trigger geophone does this too, but it is placed near the source itself, and is more commonly used with larger energy sources like a propelled energy generator. If the seismograph isn't triggering with either a hammer switch or a trigger geophone, then the signal may be weak, so turning up the sensitivity could be a workable solution. If the sensitivity is Set too high in SCS then false triggers might be encountered. In most situations having the sensitivity Set to the middle works best. Depending on where the trigger geophone is it, there may be a difference between when it is triggered and when a hammer switch would have triggered. Especially in soft ground the trigger geophone signal may be delayed. In general the hammer trigger is a more reliable timing device. The differences in trigger time when using a trigger geophone could be due to things like not striking the center of the plate or differences in the strength of the impact. More trigger circuit information: The seismograph can be triggered by shorting the two input pins A and B on the trigger connector of the seismograph. In fact, that is what the hammer switch does (contact closure device) when it impacts a striker plate. The inertia of the impact causes a momentary closure in the device, which in turn, triggers the Geode. There are no internal components that need to be added. Externally, you could construct trigger device or switch, if that is what you desire. If you were to measure the pins on the Trigger connector on your seismograph (pin A +, pin B -) you would see about 5VDC. The trigger circuit will sense a contact closure or a pulse. The Geode trigger input is capacitively coupled, with a 2mS time constant, to the midpoint of a resistive voltage divider. The voltage difference between the two ends of the divider constitute a voltage "window", which size is Set by the trigger sensitivity parameter and can range from essentially zero at the highest sensitivity, to about +/- 2.5V at the lowest sensitivity. The Geode triggers (if enabled) if and when the coupled signal exceeds the window, in either direction. The signal, after the capacitor, is clamped by diodes to the range between the trigger signal ground and +5VDC. The trigger detector output is disabled when the system is disarmed, during a parameter change, and during a shot, up to the trigger hold-off time after the end of the shot. The trigger hold-off time is a parameter Set by the user. Preceding the coupling capacitor (i.e., essentially the node accessible at pin A of the external connector), there is a 3.3K-Ohm pull-up resistor to +5VDC (relative to pin B). Also a fast transient suppressor clamps the input at about +/-14VDC. It is advised that the DC + AC level of any voltage applied to pin A relative to pin B be kept within the range of +/-7V, giving some margin of safety. If a DC voltage somewhat less than +5VDC is applied when the connector is first mated, the instrument may trigger at that moment. But, subsequently, because of the capacitive coupling, it will trigger on the next positive or negative going pulse that exceeds the window level. If the duration of the applied voltage pulse is less than the record length + delay time + hold-off time, then the Geode will effectively be ready to trigger on the same edge of another similar pulse.

The cables between the sensors and the MFAM module are flexible circuit boards, and the length is limited to 20 inches. It is possible to remove the MFAM module from the Development kit box and then reconnect it using a ribbon cable. That would allow you to extend the MFAM module and sensors away from the Dev Kit box. Our engineers have tested it to 4 meters. Below are some details about the ribbon cable. The connector on the MFAM unit is Samtec FSH-110-04-F-DH. Its mating connector is Samtec SFMH-110-02-L-D-WT. The easiest option for an extender cable between the MFAM and the Dev Kit is a pair of cable assemblies from Samtec www.samtec.com which has male/female mass terminate connectors put onto a ribbon cable.  These connectors plug directly into the MFAM I/O connector and also into the Development Kit.  We are comfortable with lengths to 10 feet total.  The samtec P/N for this cable is:  FFMD-10-T-60.00-01-F-N The ‘60.00’ number specifies the cable length in inches (which equals 5 feet).  We have found that there is generally a 2-4 week lead, time since they are made to Order and not an off-the-shelf part. (There is another solution as well if you want to make adapter boards at each end (Dev Kit and MFAM).  The exact Samtec mates for the MFAM / Dev Kit connectors are made in PCB mount connectors only, so if you make simple small adapter board to adapt the samtec connector to another connector of your choice.  We've done this with ExpressPCB which is fast and inexpensive.  A board Set from ExpressPCB is about $70 including shipping.  Our Engineering Team has a design and parts list they can send you if you're interested in going this route.)

Can the Self Trigger function (extra purchased option) replace the conventional trigger (hammer switch) and trigger extension cables typically used in refraction work? Self-Triggering doesn’t provide sufficient timing accuracy to work for refraction surveys. For refraction interpretation, the accuracy of the absolute travel time between source event and arrival at the geophone must be on the Order of ≤ 5 milliseconds. This cannot be achieved with the self-triggering processes. This is because the self-triggering option works by breaking the data into small'Time Windows' and comparing the energy levels in these against the average background energy. These time windows and the ratio values are chosen by the user, so accuracy will depend upon the length of the window and how tightly you can specify the change in energy levels. In cases where you don't have a trigger switch, you can Set up the Geode to provide pre-trigger data and place a geophone close to the source. The extra geophone acts as a trigger and will start the survey at T = 0. For more information, click here

The subject of "Bandwidth" comes up often when discussing cesium magnetometers. There are two different aspects of bandwidth that are different and need to be differentiated: The cesium magnetometer uses an atomic resonance of the Cs 133 atom (see note 1 below) which varies proportional to the ambient magnetic field. This atomic resonance is used to Set/control the frequency of an oscillator. Therefore the output signal from the magnetometer is a *frequency* which is proportional to the earth's magnetic field at a coefficient of 3.498572 Hertz per nT. Thus the output frequency (called the Larmor frequency) varies from roughly 70KHz at the equator to 350 KHz at the poles. Because the cesium magnetometer is an oscillator, and because phase is important in an oscillator, the "Bandwidth" of the electronics in the magnetometer must be at least 10 times higher than the maximum output frequency of 350 Khz, or roughly 3.5 MHz. This bandwidth should not be confused with the magnetic field measurement "Bandwidth", or how fast of a magnetic field change can be measured. To put a scaler value on any magnetic field reading the output frequency of the magnetometer must be counted, and then scaled appropriately to get a field reading in nanoTeslas. The counting process involves opening a gate period, counting the number of Larmor (frequency) cycles that occur, divide that number by the precise time interval of the gate period. then scale that value by dividing by the 3.498572 Hz / Larmor coefficient. You get one reading per gate period, which by default is five or ten hertz (200mS to 100 mS gate period). What you get for a reading during any gate period is the time interval average of the Larmor frequency over that period. The transfer function of a "time interval averaged" signal is [sine(x) / x] with the first zero falling at the sample frequency. Thus if the G-882 is sampling at 10 hertz the maximum resolvable magnetic field change is roughly 5 hertz. The sample interval of the G-882 is adjustable by sending commands to it. If the sample rate is Set to 20 hertz the measurement bandwidth will double (from a 10 hertz sample rate) but the base line noise will go up as well. It should also be noted that the basic system noise level of the G-882 for a stationary sensor is Set by the counter resolution - not by the signal to noise ratio of the oscillator electronics. If the sensor is tilted away from its optimum orientation the magnetometer signal will decrease (and therefore the signal to noise ratio), but the counted field output will not show any significant degradation until the sensor is approaching the dead zone (where the signal is really low).

It is a fairly simple task to connect a GPS to a G-858 magnetometer. You can use the External I/O cable assembly and a null modem to connect the G-858 to most GPS receivers. Null modems are available from Geometrics or from local Radio Shack or computer stores. The Null modem pin configuration for GPS receivers that have a data cable compatible with 9 pin IBM PC COM ports has male pins on both sides. The GPS should be Set to output NMEA data that contains the $GPGGA sentence. Be sure to Set the RS232 protocol to 9600 Baud, 8 Databits, 1 Stop Bit and No Parity. The G-858 must have its serial port Set to the same baud rate as the GPS. You can use System Setup -> Com & Field Note String Setup -> Chat Mode to determine whether correct communications have been established.

The subject of "Bandwidth" comes up often when discussing cesium magnetometers. There are two different aspects of bandwidth that are different and need to be differentiated: The cesium magnetometer uses an atomic resonance of the Cs 133 atom (see note 1 below) which varies proportional to the ambient magnetic field. This atomic resonance is used to Set/control the frequency of an oscillator. Therefore the output signal from the magnetometer is a *frequency* which is proportional to the earth's magnetic field at a coefficient of 3.498572 Hertz per nT. Thus the output frequency (called the Larmor frequency) varies from roughly 70KHz at the equator to 350 KHz at the poles. Because the cesium magnetometer is an oscillator, and because phase is important in an oscillator, the "Bandwidth" of the electronics in the magnetometer must be at least 10 times higher than the maximum output frequency of 350 Khz, or roughly 3.5 MHz. This bandwidth should not be confused with the magnetic field measurement "Bandwidth", or how fast of a magnetic field change can be measured. To put a scaler value on any magnetic field reading the output frequency of the magnetometer must be counted, and then scaled appropriately to get a field reading in nanoTeslas. The counting process involves opening a gate period, counting the number of Larmor (frequency) cycles that occur, divide that number by the precise time interval of the gate period. then scale that value by dividing by the 3.498572 Hz / Larmor coefficient. You get one reading per gate period, which by default is five or ten hertz (200mS to 100 mS gate period). What you get for a reading during any gate period is the time interval average of the Larmor frequency over that period. The transfer function of a "time interval averaged" signal is [sine(x) / x] with the first zero falling at the sample frequency. Thus if the G-882 is sampling at 10 hertz the maximum resolvable magnetic field change is roughly 5 hertz. The sample interval of the G-882 is adjustable by sending commands to it. If the sample rate is Set to 20 hertz the measurement bandwidth will double (from a 10 hertz sample rate) but the base line noise will go up as well. It should also be noted that the basic system noise level of the G-882 for a stationary sensor is Set by the counter resolution - not by the signal to noise ratio of the oscillator electronics. If the sensor is tilted away from its optimum orientation the magnetometer signal will decrease (and therefore the signal to noise ratio), but the counted field output will not show any significant degradation until the sensor is approaching the dead zone (where the signal is really low).