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Differences between LCS050G (Low-Noise) vs. LCS100S (SuperMag) modules Q. What is the difference between LCS050G (Low Noise) and LCS100S (SuperMag)? Is different firmware the only thing that separates the Low-Noise version from SuperMag version? Or are there mechanical differences in how the sensors are constructed? A.The firmware is different, but that is not the only difference. We also build our sensors in two different groups - A and B - to satisfy the different requirements for each version. Group A satisfies SuperMag specs, while group B meets the Low-Noise specs (please refer to the datasheet). Each SuperMag must have 2 Group A sensors. Q. The sensors in the SuperMag are physically mounted in a configuration to eliminate the dead zones. Could a customer mount their Low-Noise version of the sensors into the same 'no Dead Zone' configuration, then run a simple script to accept only good data so that if one sensor goes into a dead zone, the firmware will automatically switch to record the data from the second sensor? Obviously Geometrics performs some magic when combining the data in the firmware, but that doesn't necessarily preclude a customer from trying to make a "SuperMag" type System with their Low-Noise sensors, right? A. In principle, yes. Customers can write their own script to combine the readings from each sensor to achieve the dead-zone-free operation. However, smoothing out the combined reading when one sensor’s reading drops out is pretty tricky. In addition, the heading effect will be much worse (determined by the heading effect of individual sensors) if customers choose to combine individual magnetometer readings instead of using the SuperMag dead-zone-free mode. Q. Can I upgrade my Low-Noise sensors to the SuperMag version? Would I have to send my unit to Geometrics' Customer Support or could you simply provide the new firmware so that the instrument behaves like a SuperMag? A. Yes, it is possible to upgrade your firmware, but this process requires you to return the instrument to us. However, Geometrics will NOT guarantee the SuperMag specs in this case since LCS050G still has Group B sensors. The only way to guarantee SuperMag specs is to purchase the SuperMag sensors. Please contact us us for more information.

The subject of "Bandwidth" comes up often when discussing cesium magnetometers. There are two different aspects of bandwidth that are different and need to be differentiated: The cesium magnetometer uses an atomic resonance of the Cs 133 atom (see note 1 below) which varies proportional to the ambient magnetic field. This atomic resonance is used to set/control the frequency of an oscillator. Therefore the output signal from the magnetometer is a *frequency* which is proportional to the earth's magnetic field at a coefficient of 3.498572 Hertz per nT. Thus the output frequency (called the Larmor frequency) varies from roughly 70KHz at the equator to 350 KHz at the poles. Because the cesium magnetometer is an oscillator, and because phase is important in an oscillator, the "Bandwidth" of the electronics in the magnetometer must be at least 10 times higher than the maximum output frequency of 350 Khz, or roughly 3.5 MHz. This bandwidth should not be confused with the magnetic field measurement "Bandwidth", or how fast of a magnetic field change can be measured. To put a scaler value on any magnetic field reading the output frequency of the magnetometer must be counted, and then scaled appropriately to get a field reading in nanoTeslas. The counting process involves opening a gate period, counting the number of Larmor (frequency) cycles that occur, divide that number by the precise time interval of the gate period. then scale that value by dividing by the 3.498572 Hz / Larmor coefficient. You get one reading per gate period, which by default is five or ten hertz (200mS to 100 mS gate period). What you get for a reading during any gate period is the time interval average of the Larmor frequency over that period. The transfer function of a "time interval averaged" signal is [sine(x) / x] with the first zero falling at the sample frequency. Thus if the G-882 is sampling at 10 hertz the maximum resolvable magnetic field change is roughly 5 hertz. The sample interval of the G-882 is adjustable by sending commands to it. If the sample rate is set to 20 hertz the measurement bandwidth will double (from a 10 hertz sample rate) but the base line noise will go up as well. It should also be noted that the basic System noise level of the G-882 for a stationary sensor is set by the counter resolution - not by the signal to noise ratio of the oscillator electronics. If the sensor is tilted away from its optimum orientation the magnetometer signal will decrease (and therefore the signal to noise ratio), but the counted field output will not show any significant degradation until the sensor is approaching the dead zone (where the signal is really low).

A seismograph with an active trigger input like the Geode Seismograph or ES-3000 Seismograph can be triggered many different ways. The most commonly used methods are with a trigger switch or a trigger geophone. Typically a trigger switch (known as a hammer switch) is attached to the handle of a sledgehammer near the striking end, so when the sledgehammer is hit against a striker plate to create an active source of energy, the piezoelectric crystal in the hammer switch is activated and the seismograph is triggered to record data along the preset parameters. A trigger geophone does this too, but it is placed near the source itself, and is more commonly used with larger energy sources like a propelled energy generator. If the seismograph isn't triggering with either a hammer switch or a trigger geophone, then the signal may be weak, so turning up the sensitivity could be a workable solution. If the sensitivity is set too high in SCS then false triggers might be encountered. In most situations having the sensitivity set to the middle works best. Depending on where the trigger geophone is it, there may be a difference between when it is triggered and when a hammer switch would have triggered. Especially in soft ground the trigger geophone signal may be delayed. In general the hammer trigger is a more reliable timing device. The differences in trigger time when using a trigger geophone could be due to things like not striking the center of the plate or differences in the strength of the impact. More trigger circuit information: The seismograph can be triggered by shorting the two input pins A and B on the trigger connector of the seismograph. In fact, that is what the hammer switch does (contact closure device) when it impacts a striker plate. The inertia of the impact causes a momentary closure in the device, which in turn, triggers the Geode. There are no internal components that need to be added. Externally, you could construct trigger device or switch, if that is what you desire. If you were to measure the pins on the Trigger connector on your seismograph (pin A +, pin B -) you would see about 5VDC. The trigger circuit will sense a contact closure or a pulse. The Geode trigger input is capacitively coupled, with a 2mS time constant, to the midpoint of a resistive voltage divider. The voltage difference between the two ends of the divider constitute a voltage "window", which size is set by the trigger sensitivity parameter and can range from essentially zero at the highest sensitivity, to about +/- 2.5V at the lowest sensitivity. The Geode triggers (if enabled) if and when the coupled signal exceeds the window, in either direction. The signal, after the capacitor, is clamped by diodes to the range between the trigger signal ground and +5VDC. The trigger detector output is disabled when the System is disarmed, during a parameter change, and during a shot, up to the trigger hold-off time after the end of the shot. The trigger hold-off time is a parameter set by the user. Preceding the coupling capacitor (i.e., essentially the node accessible at pin A of the external connector), there is a 3.3K-Ohm pull-up resistor to +5VDC (relative to pin B). Also a fast transient suppressor clamps the input at about +/-14VDC. It is advised that the DC + AC level of any voltage applied to pin A relative to pin B be kept within the range of +/-7V, giving some margin of safety. If a DC voltage somewhat less than +5VDC is applied when the connector is first mated, the instrument may trigger at that moment. But, subsequently, because of the capacitive coupling, it will trigger on the next positive or negative going pulse that exceeds the window level. If the duration of the applied voltage pulse is less than the record length + delay time + hold-off time, then the Geode will effectively be ready to trigger on the same edge of another similar pulse.

Magnetometers may very rarely record a jump in GNSS-based (GPS, GLONASS, etc.) timestamps, of a few to several seconds, either forward or backward. This is more likely when the instrument is using GLONASS (GNGGA,GNRMC) positioning data than when receiving GPS (GPGGA,GPRMC) data, and when it occurs this behavior should only occur once; the System will not jump back and forth. This happens very rarely. Geometrics has verified only one instance of this behavior in Geometrics instruments, but our research shows that it is a known issue with the internals of some satellite navigation Systems, and it may have happened in additional cases. If you observe this behavior please let Geometrics know; the issue doesn't currently have a solution, but we are researching options to identify when it occurs. When this anomaly occurs, only the timestamp is incorrect; magnetometer and location data remain uninterrupted and correct.